Archaeology of Indonesia
Stretching the length of Southeast Asia across four time zones, Indonesia is in the centre of many archaeological discoveries that shape our understanding of the past. Indonesia is an archipelagic country, composed of over 17,000 islands which can divided into seven regions: Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan, the Lesser Sundas, Sulawesi, Maluku and Papua. Indonesia has a rich and diverse archaeological record, from evidence of early hominids, rock art, Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms and Islamic sultanates, to remains from Dutch colonization and recent wars. Several cultural sites are listed as Unesco World Heritage, namely: Borobudur, the cultural landscape of Bali, Prambanan, Ombilin Coal Mining Heritage and the Sangiran Early Man site.
To cite this page:Â Tan, Noel Hidalgo (2021, Updated 10 August 2024) Archaeology of Indonesia. Southeast Asian Archaeology. Available at:Â https://www.southeastasianarchaeology.com/indonesia-archaeology/
Overview
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The Indonesian archipelago was inhabited as early as 1.6 million years ago by Homo erectus from fossil evidence. A newly-discovered species of hominid, Homo floresiensis, is known for its small stature and lived in Flores around 74,000-13,000 years ago. Homo sapiens appear in the archaeological record from as early as 70,000 years ago with rock art from Kalimantan and Sulawesi dating to around 45,000 to 35,000 years. The most well-known migration wave into the Indonesian islands are associated with the Austronesian-speaking peoples who came into the region around 2,000 BCE from a maritime route originating in Taiwan. These migrants merged with indigenous populations, bringing with them rice agriculture, bronze casting and megalithic cultures.
Indianized kingdoms began to emerge during the first half of the first millennium CE. Tarumanegara on Java and the Kingdom of Sunda on Sumatra are the earliest known historic polities in Indonesia (3rd to 6th centuries CE). Classical kingdoms include Kalingga Kingdom, Medang Kingdom (responsible for Prambanan), Sriwijaya, Sailendra (responsible for Borobudur), Majapahit and Singhasari. The influence of Indian culture penetrated deeply into society, philosophy and religion. However, the quick rise of the Malacca Sultanate in modern-day Malaysia during the 16th century saw the adoption of Islam in Java and Sumatra, which remains the dominant religion today.
Starting from the 16th century, Europeans began to trade with Indonesia in an effort to monopolize the sources of valuable spices. In 1602 the Dutch East India Company secured a monopoly on trade and colonial activities in Java, which led to the establishment of Batavia (modern day Jakarta) in the 17th century. By 1800 the Dutch East India Company was bankrupt, and the Dutch East Indies was formally annexed by the Netherlands in 1825. The Dutch introduced cash crops, including coffee and rubber, which became dominant in the economy of Indonesia. Dutch rule ended after the Second World War. The modern state of Indonesia emerged following the country’s independence from Dutch colonial rule in 1945.
Like many other countries in Southeast Asia, archaeology in Indonesia today began as a colonial endeavour, with Dutch East Indies scholars collecting and describing artefacts from the colonial period. It was not until the discovery of fossils in Trinil in the beginning of the 20th century that interest in prehistory and archaeology increased. For the first half of the 20th century, archaeology was conducted mainly by Europeans, but indigenous archaeologists have increasingly taken the forefront in more recent years. Archaeological research in Indonesia is led by Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi Nasional (the National Archaeology Research Centre), and several universities in the country. Many foreign teams, particularly from Australia, also have active research projects in the region.
Notable Archaeological Sites in Indonesia
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With over 17,000 islands, Indonesia has a lot of archaeological sites! Here is a list of some of the more significant archaeological sites in Indonesia. Not all of these sites are open to the public, and the locations marked on the map may not be exact. For more information about museums in Indonesia, check out the museum page here.
- Borobudur: Borobudur is a ninth-century Buddhist temple located in Central Java. It is one of Indonesia’s most popular tourist attractions. Built in the form of a mandala, the temple features a series of square and circular platforms, each of which is decorated with intricate carvings and reliefs depicting scenes from Buddhist mythology. Borobudur is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
- Candi Sukuh: A 15th-century Hindu temple located on the western slope of Mount Lawu in Central Java, Indonesia. The temple is known for its unusual and distinctive architecture, which combines elements of Hindu, Buddhist, and Javanese mysticism. The temple features a series of terraced platforms, each of which is adorned with intricate carvings and reliefs depicting scenes from Hindu mythology. Candi Sukuh is believed to have been built by the Majapahit Empire, and is one of the few surviving temples from this period.
- Gunung Kawi: An archaeological site located in Bali. The site is made up of a series of rock-cut shrines and burial complexes, which are thought to date back to the 11th century. The shrines are carved into the sheer rock face of the mountain.
- Liang Bua Cave: This cave is located on the island of Flores, Indonesia and is famous for the discovery of the remains of the hobbit-like species, Homo floresiensis, also known as “The Hobbit”.
- Maros-Pangkep Rock Art Sites: The Maros-Pangkep Rock Art Sites are mainly composed of paintings and drawings located in the limstone karsts in South Sulawesi province. The rock art is among the oldest in the world, some dating back to between 39,000 – 45,000 years old.
- Muaro Jambi: Muaro Jambi is an archaeological site located in Jambi province, Sumatra, Indonesia. It contains remains of an ancient civilization that flourished between the 7th and 13th centuries AD. The site includes a number of Buddhist and Hindu temples, and is associated with the Srivijaya polity.
- Pasemah Megaliths: A group of ancient stone structures located in the Pasemah region of South Sumatra, Indonesia. The megaliths are thought to date back to the second or third century AD.
- Prambanan Temple Complex: Prambanan is a ninth-century Hindu temple complex in Central Java, Indonesia made up of several smaller temples, each dedicated to a different Hindu deity. The main temple, known as the Shiva Temple, is the largest and most ornate of the temples, and features a series of intricate carvings and reliefs depicting scenes from Hindu mythology.
- Sangiran Early Man Site: A paleoanthropological site located in Central Java, Indonesia. It is the site of numerous fossils and artifacts of early human ancestors, including some of the oldest known hominid fossils in Asia. The site is thought to have been occupied by early human ancestors, including Homo erectus, as early as 1.6 million years ago.
- Trowulan: Trowulan is an archaeological site located in the Trowulan sub-district of Mojokerto Regency, in East Java, Indonesia. It is the site of the capital city of the Majapahit Empire, which was one of the largest and most powerful empires in Southeast Asia during the 14th and 15th centuries.
- Tutari Doyo Lama: Megalithic site in Papua, on the banks of Lake Sentani, in the Jayawijaya District of Papua, Indonesia. It is a collection of large stone structures that were constructed by the Dani people, an indigenous group that still lives in the area today. The megaliths are thought to have been built between 800 and 1500 AD.
- Yogyakarta: The cosmological axis of Yogyakarta, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, was established in the 18th century and links Mount Merapi to the Indian Ocean with the palace (kraton) at the centre.
Recommended Books
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There are a numerous books relevant to the archaeology and history of Indonesia, and the list below is my personal recommendation based on what I have in my library or have read, and are easily available. There are some local-language publications that are not available in the internet, and newer books are higher up on the list. Some of these links are affiliate links and I may receive a commission if you click on them and make a purchase. For other sources of reliable academic information, you should also check out the books page for latest releases and the occassional free book, as well as the journals page for the latest scientific research.
Most Popular Indonesian Archaeology Posts
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These links are dynamically generated and are based on the most viewed posts in the last 30 days.
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Indonesian Archaeology in the News
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The news reports indexed below usually link to external sites that were active at the time of posting; sometimes websites may be temporarily down or may have reorganised their underlying architecture or have even closed down – in these cases the links may not be available. Most of the news articles archived are in English; this is largely because I do not have a working competency in Bahasa, although when I am made aware of stories in this and other languages I try to index them.
Links to Useful Sites
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These are links to external sites and unless stated, I have no connection with the organisations or entities in these links or control over their content. They are sorted alphabetically, but you should also explore the Resources page which have links sorted by themes. If you have a link to suggest, please get in touch!
- Aksara di Nusantara – A crowdsourced and crowd-created list of ancient and traditional Indonesian fonts are made freely available.
- Balai Konservasi Borobudur – Borobudur Conservation Centre.
- Balai Pelestarian Cagar Budaya Aceh – Branch of the Indonesian Centre for Conservation of Cultural Heritage based in Aceh.
- Balai Pelestarian Cagar Budaya Bali – Branch of the Indonesian Centre for Conservation of Cultural Heritage based in Bali.
- Balai Pelestarian Cagar Budaya Banten – Branch of the Indonesian Centre for Conservation of Cultural Heritage based in Banten.
- Balai Pelestarian Cagar Budaya Gorontalo – Branch of the Indonesian Centre for Conservation of Cultural Heritage based in Gorontalo.
- Balai Pelestarian Cagar Budaya Jambi – Branch of the Indonesian Centre for Conservation of Cultural Heritage based in Jambi.
- Balai Pelestarian Cagar Budaya Jawa Tengah – Branch of the Indonesian Centre for Conservation of Cultural Heritage based in Central Java.
- Balai Pelestarian Cagar Budaya Jawa Timur – Branch of the Indonesian Centre for Conservation of Cultural Heritage based in East Java.
- Balai Pelestarian Cagar Budaya Kalimantan Timur – Branch of the Indonesian Centre for Conservation of Cultural Heritage based in East Kalimantan.
- Balai Pelestarian Cagar Budaya Maluku Utara – Branch of the Indonesian Centre for Conservation of Cultural Heritage based in North Maluku.
- Balai Pelestarian Cagar Budaya Sulawesi Selatan – Branch of the Indonesian Centre for Conservation of Cultural Heritage based in South Sulawesi.
- Balai Pelestarian Cagar Budaya Sumatra Barat – Branch of the Indonesian Centre for Conservation of Cultural Heritage based in West Sumatra.
- Balai Pelestarian Cagar Budaya Yogyakarta – Branch of the Indonesian Centre for Conservation of Cultural Heritage based in Yogyakarta.
- Balai Pelestarian Situs Manusia Purba (BPSMP) Sangiran – Sangiran Early Man Centre.
- Banda Islands Archaeology Website – An archaeology project in the Banda Islands in East Indonedia led by the University of Washington and Gadjah Mada University to uncover the archaeology of this region.
- Banda Islands Field School Blog – A blog run by the students and instructors attending an 8-week field school at the Banda Islands in early 2009.
- Borobudur on Google Streetview
- Borobudur on Project Jigsaw – by the Australian National University.
- Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan – The Directorate General of Culture is the implementing agency of Indonesia, overseeing cultural heritage, museums and archaeology
- EFEO Jakarta blog (French/Bahasa Indonesia) – Blog run by the Jakarta branch of the Ecole Francaise d’Extreme-Orient.
- The First Picture – Google Arts and Culture site on the rock art of South Sulawesi
- Indonesian Heritage Society – Non-profit organization supporting cultural institutions in Indonesia
- Medieval Indonesia – Blog by Dr Alex West about ancient and medieval Indonesia.
- Pinisi – Site by Horst Liebner about the Sulawesi boatbuilding tradition.
- Primary Sources: History of the Malay World – Collection of links to historical primary sources related to Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore and Brunei.
- Reminiscing Old Java – Blog dedicated to sharing information about old Javanese civilization, including heritage, history, and culture. Last updated 2016.
- Tanah Datar Archaeological Project – An excavation blog for the Tanah Datar Archaeological Project, running from 1 March – 8 April 2012, by Universitas Indonesia and the Frei Universität Berlin.
- Tracing Patterns Foundation – Tracing Patterns Foundation, founded in 2018 by Dr. Sandra Sardjono, is an international community of scholars and textile makers dedicated to researching traditional and contemporary textiles, weaving and dyeing techniques, and cultural meanings, while also supporting original field research.
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